GENERAL HISTOPATHOLOGY:
CELL CULTURE :
This study is used to study of metabolism of normal and cancerous cells,for development of new drugs, study micro-organisms.HISTOCHEMICAL STAINS :
* Pursian blue : for iron
* PAS-amylase and alcian : glycosaminoglycans
* Reaction to lipid : sphingolipidosis
RECEPTOR AND DISEASE :
Several disease caused by non responsive targated receptors. E,g, dawarfism, growth hormones is produced sufficiently but receptors can't respond.
MITOCHONDRIAL DEFICIENCY :
High energy metabolism organelles, their deficiency highly effects skeletal muscles due to their energy demands. Only few mitochondria left in zygote contributed by sperms so main source of mitochondria and their abnormalities is maternal origin. Most common presentation of its deficiency is muscular dystrophy .LYSOSOMAL DEFICIENCY :
Lysosomes produce various enzymes that go extracellular and metabolize various substance e.g , collagenase by osteoclasts digests collagen in bone formation . Also contributes in inflammation .Lysosomal deficiency will cause respective enzyme's deficiency-------> accumulation of targated product .
INCLUSION DISEASE :
Enzymes coming from lysosomes of RER are not phosphorylated in golgi apparatus due to deficiency of phosphorylated enzymes. Secretory lysosomal enzymes are present in patient's blood with inclusion disease with empty lysosomes .PROTOSOME DEFICIENCY :
Protosomes are needed for protein degradation . If protosomes absent ---> proteins agregates -------> agregates deposits in extracellular matrix after cell is dead ------>can case neurodegenerative diseases .E.g, alzheimers and huntington diseases.
PEROXISOMAL ABNORMALITIES :
Most common is X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy by defective integral defective proteins that participate in transporting long chain fatty acids in peroxisomes for beta oxidation .accumulation of these fatty acids cause myelin sheath destruction in nerve tissue---------> neurodegenerative disorders .INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS :
Presence of specific type of intermediate filament in tumors reveals from which cell origenated tumors by specific immunohistochemical method.TUMOR :
*Carcinoma is malignant tumor of epithelial cell origin .*Adenocarcinoma is malignant tumor by glandular epithelial cells .
NEOPLASIA :
Epithelial cells are prone to abnormal growth called neoplasia , its reversible and not always transforms to cancers .METAPLASIA :
One type pf epithelial cell transform into another type , is called metaplasia . E.g, in smokers ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium can transforms into stratified squamous epithelium.INCREASED WHITE ADIPOSE TISSUE :
Lepti and many proinflamatory cytokines are released by white adipose tissues and their excess cause inflammatory reactions associated with obesity such as diabetes and heart disease .ADIPOSE TUMORS:
* Beningn tumors --> lipomas* Malignant tumors ---> liposarcoma
CARTILAGENOUS TUMORS :
* Beningn ---> chondroma* Malignant ----> chondrosarcoma
CARTILAGE DEGENERATION :
Hyaline cartilage are susceptible to degenerative aging process .OSTEOPETROSIS :
Genetic disease characterize by heavy bones / marble bones. In this osteoclasts lacks ruffled borders and bone reabsorption is defective . Bones are thick but weak .HYPERPYRATHYROIDISM :
In hyperparathyroidism ---------> increase osteoclasts activity ------> increase reabsorption of bones --------> elevates blood calcium and phosphate level ------> abnormal deposition in kidney and artery .RICKETS :
Calcium deficiency in children causes rickets . In this bone matrix does not calcify and epiphyseal plates become distorted , ossification process at this sites becomes hindered and bones become deformed ( bow legs )OSTEOMALACIA :
Calcium deficiency in adults causes osteomalacia , Its due to defecient calcification or decalcification of already calcified bones .In osteomalacia amount of calcium per unit of bone matrix is decrease .
In osteoporosis bone reabsorption exceeds bone formation .( in post menopausal women , bed ridden patients )
BONE TUMOR :
Osteosarcoma arise from osteoblasts .
VERTEBRAL DISC :
Annulus fibrosis is weak in posterior region and rupture there will cause expulsion of nucleus pulposes---> disc sliping in vertebral column ----> if compressed nerve areas .COLLAGEN ABNORMALITIES :
Osteogenesis imperfecta is defective collagen synthesis due to mutation in alpha 1 and alpha 2 genes .Over accumulation of collagen causes progressive systemic seclrosis ---> hardening of various body structures impairing their functions .Keloids is one example of overaccumulation of collagen once there is incission on body (excessive scar disease )
SCURVY :
EDEMA
Accumulation of water(more than normal) in extrracellular space is called "EDEMA".Its pathological process.There are several causes to that:
* increase permeability to vessels due to injury.
Lymphatic obstruction (metastatic or tumor plugs),venous obstructions, decerease in venous blood flow (congestive heart failure),deficiency in plasma proteins, decerease colloid pressure etc
ATESTHETIC:
Local anesthetics are hydrophobic molecules that binds to sodium channels.NEUROMA:
If there is extensive gap between distal and proximal nerve axons of cut fiber or distal segment is altogether absent as in case of amputation,there develop swelling or neuroma that causes painHYPERPLASIA AND HYPERTROPHY:
Increase in cell volume is called hypertrophy (heart muscle)Increase in number of cells, who didn't have lost their capacity to divide in hypertrophy.(smooth muscles)
ENDOTHELIAL CELLS:
Integrity of endothelial layer preventing contact between platelets and subendothelial connective tissue is very important for endothelial's anti thrombogenic functions.
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